PIAHSProceedings of the International Association of Hydrological SciencesPIAHSProc. IAHS2199-899XCopernicus GmbHGöttingen, Germany10.5194/piahs-372-115-2015Study on the risk and impacts of land subsidence in JakartaH. Z. Abidinhzabidin@gmail.comAndreasH.GumilarI.BrinkmanJ. J.Geodesy Research Group, Faculty of Earth Science and Technology,
Institute of Technology Bandung, Bandung 40132, IndonesiaDeltares, Delft, NetherlandsH. Z. Abidin (hzabidin@gmail.com)12November2015372372115120This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/This article is available from https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/372/115/2015/piahs-372-115-2015.htmlThe full text article is available as a PDF file from https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/372/115/2015/piahs-372-115-2015.pdf
Jakarta is the capital city of Indonesia located in the west-northern coast
of Java island, within a deltaic plain and passes by 13 natural and
artificial rivers. This megapolitan has a population of about 10.2 million
people inhabiting an area of about 660 km2, with relatively rapid
urban development. It has been reported for many years that several places in
Jakarta are subsiding at different rates. The main causative factors of land
subsidence in Jakarta are most probably excessive groundwater extraction,
load of constructions (i.e., settlement of high compressibility soil), and
natural consolidation of alluvial soil. Land subsidence in Jakarta has been
studied using leveling surveys, GPS surveys, InSAR and Geometric-Historic
techniques. The results obtained from leveling surveys, GPS surveys and InSAR
technique over the period between 1974 and 2010 show that land subsidence in
Jakarta has spatial and temporal variations with typical rates of about
3–10 cmyear-1. Rapid urban development, relatively young
alluvium soil, and relatively weak mitigation and adapatation initiatives,
are risk increasing factors of land subsidence in Jakarta. The subsidence
impacts can be seen already in the field in forms of cracking and damage of
housing, buildings and infrastructure; wider expansion of (riverine and
coastal) flooding areas, malfunction of drainage system, changes in river
canal and drain flow systems and increased inland sea water intrusion. These
impacts can be categorized into infrastructural, environmental, economic and
social impacts. The risk and impacts of land subsidence in Jakarta and their
related aspects are discussed in this paper.
Introduction
Land subsidence is a natural-anthropogenic hazard affecting
quite many large urban areas (cities) in the world, including Jakarta, the
capital city in Indonesia. It is located on the lowland area in the northern
coast of West Java, centered at the coordinates of about 6∘15′ S
and +106∘50′ E (see Fig. 1), within a deltaic plain and passes
by 13 natural and two canals. This megapolitan has a population of about
10.1 million people in 2014, inhabiting an area of about 662 km2,
with relatively rapid urban development. Topographically, the area of Jakarta
has slopes ranging between 0 and 2∘ in the northern and central
parts, between 0 and 5∘ in the southern part, and its southern-most
area has an altitude of about 50 m above mean sea level.
Land subsidence is a well known phenomena affecting Jakarta, and it has been
observed using several geodetic techniques and has been widely reported for
many years (Rismianto and Mak, 1993; Murdohardono and Sudarsono, 1998;
Purnomo et al., 1999; Rajiyowiryono, 1999; Abidin et al., 2001, 2004, 2008,
2010, 2011, 2013; Koudogbo et al., 2012; Ng et al., 2012; Chaussard et
al., 2013). According to those studies, land subsidence in Jakarta has
spatial and temporal variations with typical rates of about
3–10 cmyear-1.
Land subsidence impacts in Jakarta can be seen already in the field in forms
of cracking and damage of housing, buildings and infrastructure; wider
expansion of (riverine and coastal) flooding areas, malfunction of drainage
system, changes in river canal and drain flow systems and increased inland
sea water intrusion. In general, these impacts can be categorized into
infrastructural, environmental, economic and social impacts.
Location of Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia.
Importance of land subsidence information for urban development.
Since information of land subsidence characteristics is important for
sustainable urban development of Jakarta (see Fig. 2), then understanding the
risk and impacts of land subsidence in Jakarta and their related aspects is
very important and strategic, and land subsidence charactristics should be
continuously monitored.
Box plots of land subsidence rates in Jakarta during the period of
1974–1991 (left) and 1991–2010 (right). Subsidence rate unit is
cmyear-1.
Rates of land subsidence in Jakarta during the period of 1974–1991
(left) and 1991–2010 (right); courtesy of Irwan Gumilar of Geodesy Research
Group of ITB.
Land subsidence characteristics in Jakarta
Land subsidence phenomena in Jakarta has actually been observed using several
geodetic methods, such as Leveling survey, GPS survey, InSAR, Microgravity
survey, and Geometric-Historic method. In general, the observed land
subsidence in Jakarta has spatial and temporal variations, with the typical
rates of about 3–10 cmyear-1 (see Figs. 3, 4). These subsidence
rates are obtained from the integration of results obtained by the Leveling
surveys (1974–1997), GPS surveys (1997–2010), and InSAR technique
(2006–2010). In this period of about 37 years (1974–2010), the total
subsidence of up to about 4 m have been observed in several locations
in Jakarta. The observed land subsidences along the coastal areas of Jakarta
are relatively have larger rates than the inland areas. Figures 3 and 4 also
show the existence of spatial variation in subsidence rates along the coastal
zone of Jakarta, in which the central and western parts have relatively
larger rates. These larger rates of subsidence are mainly due to higher
volumes of groundwater extraction, combined with relatively younger alluvium
soil composition. More information on land subsidence characteristics in
Jakarta can be seen in Abidin et al. (2001, 2004, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2013,
2014, 2015a, b), Ng et al. (2012), Chaussard et al. (2013).
The studies from Murdohardono and Sudarsono (1998), Rismianto and Mak (1993),
Harsolumakso (2001), and Hutasoit (2001) suggested that the possible
causative factors of land subsidence in Jakarta are most probably: excessive
groundwater extraction, load of constructions (i.e., settlement of high
compressibility soil), natural consolidation of alluvial soil, and tectonic
activities. Land subsidence in certain area is usually caused by combination
of those factors. Considering the spatial variation of land subsidence rates
in Jakarta area, then it can be expected that the contribution of each factor
on land subsidence at each location also will has spatial variation. In
Jakarta, tectonic activities seem to be the least dominant factor, while
excessive groundwater extraction is considered to be one of dominant factor
for causing land subsidence.
Land subsidence risk in Jakarta
Considering the aforementioned causative factors of land subsidence in
Jakarta, actually there are three main risk increasing factors of land
subsidence in Jakarta that can be considered, namely: relatively young
alluvium soil in which Jakarta is located, rapid urban development, and
relatively weak imposement of land subsidence mitigation and adaptation
measures (see Fig. 5).
Jakarta is located in a lowland coastal areas, composed by relatively young
and soft alluvium soil. According to Rimbaman and Suparan (1999), there are
five main landforms of Jakarta, namely: alluvial landforms (southern part),
landforms of marine-origin (northern part adjacent to the coastline), beach
ridge landforms (northwest and northeast parts), swamp and mangrove swamp
landforms (coastal fringe), and former channels (perpendicular to the
coastline). There are also 13 rivers and 2 canals flowing across Jakarta from
its southern part and have estuaries in Java sea along an approximately
35 km of coastline. Jakarta basin, according to Yong et al. (1995),
its consisted of a 200–300 m thick sequence of quaternary deposits which
overlies tertiary sediments, in which the top sequence is thought to be the
base of the groundwater basin. The quaternary sequence itself can be further
subdivided into three major units, which, in ascending order are: a sequence
of pleistocene marine and non-marine sediments, a late pleistocene volcanic
fan deposit, and holocene marine and floodplain deposits.
The above geological and geomorphological conditions make Jakarta has a
higher risk (prone) toward land subsidence phenomena, especially in cases of
excessive groundwater extraction and massive loading from buildings and
infrastructures.
Rapid urban development in Jakarta also contributes to increasing risk of
land subsidence occurences in Jakarta (Abidin et al., 2011). In this case,
the increases in built-up areas, population, economic and industrial
activities, will then increase groundwater extraction and also buildings and
infrastructure loadings; which usually in turn lead to land subsidence
phenomena. The relatively very rapid urban development of Jakarta as a
megapolitan city is mainly in the sectors of industry, trade, transportation,
housing, hotel and apartment, and many others (Firman, 1999, 2004; Hudalah et
al., 2013); and they have introduced several negative environmental problems
(Firman and Dharmapatni, 1994; Hudalah and Firman, 2012), such as: extensive
conversion of agricultural areas into residential and industrial areas,
significant disturbance to ecological and hydrological functions of the
upland of Jakarta area and river catchment areas, and increase in groundwater
extraction due to development of industrial activities and the high
population increase. Coastal area of Jakarta which is mainly composed by
relatively young and soft alluvium soil, has also experienced extensive urban
development, such as establishment of sea port, coastal resort, golf course,
residential areas, industries, apartments, malls, hotels, and commercials and
office buildings. Coastal reclamation has also been conducted to accomodate
more coastal development initiatives. These extensive urban development
activities will have contribution into increasing land subsidence risk in
several places in Jakarta (Abidin et al., 2011).
The causative factors, risk increasing factors and impacts of land
subsidence in urban areas of Indonesia.
The other risk increasing factor of land subsidence in Jakarta is a
relatively weak mitigation and adaptation initiatives (see Table 1) being
implemented in Jakarta. At present, land subsidence hazard is not yet
properly considered in urban development and spatial planning, groundwater
extraction regulation system, and building codes in Jakarta. Although the
regulation has been introduced to limit groundwater extraction in several
subsidence prone areas in Jakarta; however, its enforcement is still need to
be proven.
Examples of mitigation and adaptation initiatives for decreasing
land subsidence risk in urban areas.
Causative factorsMitigationAdaptationExcessive– Limit or prohibit groundwater– Increase the surface groundwater supply and resources.groundwaterextraction in subsidence prone areas.extraction– Enforcement of strict regulation and– Continuous monitoring of subsidence characteristics.punishment for groundwater extractionin subsidence prone areas.Load of– Urban development planning takes into account– Implementation of special building codes for landbuildings andthe land subsidence characteristics in the areas.subsidence prone areas.infrastructures– Urban development rate in subsidence– Continuous monitoring of subsidence characteristics.prone areas is properly controlled.Natural– Implementation of subsidence-adaptiveconsolidatiumurban developmen and spatial planning.of alluvium soilNoneTectonic activities– Continuous monitoring of subsidence characteristics.
Characteristics of land subsidence impacts; after Abidin et
al. (2015c).
No.CategoryRepresentation of impactLevel of impact1.Infrastructuralcracking of permanent constructions and roadsdirecttilting of houses and buildingsdirect“sinking” of houses and buildingsdirectbreaking of underground pipelines and utilitiesdirectmalfunction of sewerage and drainage systemindirectdeterioration in function of building and infrastructuresindirect2.Environmentalchanges in river canal and drain flow systemsindirectfrequent coastal floodingwider expansion of flooding areasinundated areas and infrastructuresincreased inland sea water intrusiondeterioration in quality of environmental condition3.Economicincrease in maintenance cost of infrastructureindirectdecrease in land and property valuesabandoned buildings and facilitiesdisruption to economic activities4.Socialdeterioration in quality of living environment and lifeindirect(e.g. health and sanitation condition)disruprion to daily activities of peopleLand subsidence impacts in Jakarta
In general, the impacts of land subsidence in Jakarta can be seen in the
field in various forms as shown in Fig. 6, such as cracking of permanent
constructions and roads, tilting of houses and buildings, “sinking” of
houses and buildings, changes in river canal and drain flow systems, wider
expansion of coastal and/or inland flooding areas, and increased inland sea
water intrusion. These subsidence impacts can be categorized into
infrastructure, environmental, economic, and social impacts (see Table 2).
Most of these impacts are indirectly generated due to land subsidence in the
areas, and several of them are directly caused by subsidence. More over,
these subsidence impacts have also relation among each other, and its
connection system is simplified by Fig. 7.
The potential losses due to land subsidence in urban areas such as Jakarta
are actually quite significant (Ward et al., 2011; Viets, 2010). Related
infrastructural, social and environmental costs due to direct and indirect
impacts of land subsidence are economically quite significant, and can not be
under estimated in sustainable urban development. In this regard for example,
the planning, development and maintenance costs of building and
infrastructures in the affected areas are usually much higher than the normal
situation. The collateral impact of coastal subsidence in Jakarta, in the
form of coastal flooding during high tides is also quite damaging (Abidin et
al., 2011, 2015b). This repeated coastal flooding in several areas along the
coast, will deteriorates the structure and function of building and
infrastructures, badly influences the quality of living environment and life
(e.g. health and sanitation condition), and also disrupts economic and social
activities in the affected areas. Inland subsidence should also has an impact
on inland flooding phenomena in Jakarta (Texier, 2008), since it will
theoretically lead to expanded coverage and deeper water depth of flooded
(inundated) areas (Abidin et al., 2015b, c). The losses due to inland
flooding in Jakarta are also significant since it affects many economic
related activities in the city and surrounding regions.
Examples of representation in the field of land subsidence impacts
in Jakarta.
Land subsidence impacts in urban areas and its connection system,
from Abidin et al. (2015c).
Closing remarks
Land subsidence is a natural-anthropogenic
hazard affecting Jakarta, with typical rates of about
3–10 cmyear-1. Its direct and indirect impacts can be easily
seen nowadays in the field. Without good and effective mitigation and
adaptation initiatives, land subsidence hazard in Jakarta can have more
disastrous impacts in the future. In this case, the infrastructural,
economic, environmental and social impacts of land subsidence can be quite a
heavy burden for sustainable development of Jakarta.
At present, detail characteristics and mechanisms of land subsidence in
Jakarta, both in spatial and temporal domains, are still not yet fully
established. Contribution of each causative factors on observed land
subsidence in certain areas still needs to be estimated and modelled. In this
regard, the implementation of continuous subsidence monitoring system (e.g.
GNSS CORS system) in Jakarta is necessary. Since, there is quite a strong
linkage between geological and geomorphological condition, and rapid urban
development in Jakarta with land subsidence characteristics, then subsidence
mitigation and adaptation initiatives should be integrated in urban
development program and spatial planning of Jakarta.
Finally, it should be pointed out that based on preliminary studies (Abidien
et al., 2015b), it is found that there is some spatial correlation between
land subsidence affected areas with flooded (inundated) areas in Jakarta.
However, since the exact relation mechanism between the two phenomena is not
yet established; then more quantitative characteristics of this correlation
cannot be estimated. In order to establish a quantitative relation between
land subsidence and flooding phenomena in Jakarta, then the following
activities should be conducted, namely: detail mapping of the spatial and
temporal rates and impacts of land subsidence, detail mapping of flooded
(inundated) area during the flooding events, and detail flood risk modelling
for Jakarta.
Acknowledgements
Land subsidence study in Jakarta using space geodetic techniques has been
conducted by the Geodesy Research group of ITB since 1997, by using several
research grants from Ministry of Science, Technology, and Higher Education of
Indonesia, from the Provincial Government of Jakarta, and from ITB Research
programs. The GPS surveys were conducted by the Geodesy Research Group of
ITB, the Geospatial Agency of Indonesia, and the staffs and students from the
Department of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering of ITB.
ReferencesAbidin, H. Z., Djaja, R., Darmawan, D., Hadi, S., Akbar, A., Rajiyowiryono,
H., Sudibyo, Y., Meilano, I., Kusuma, M. A., Kahar, J., and Subarya, C.: Land
Subsidence of Jakarta (Indonesia) and its Geodetic-Based Monitoring System,
Nat. Hazards, 23, 365–387, 10.1023/A:1011144602064, 2001.
Abidin, H. Z., Djaja, R., Andreas, H., Gamal, M., Hirose, K., and Maruyama,
Y.: Capabilities and Constraints of Geodetic Techniques for Monitoring Land
Subsidence in the Urban Areas of Indonesia, Geomatics Research Australia, 81,
45–58, 2004.
Abidin, H. Z., Andreas, H., Djaja, R., Darmawan, D., and Gamal, M.: Land
subsidence characteristics of Jakarta between 1997 and 2005, as estimated
using GPS surveys, GPS Solutions, Springer Berlin/Heidelberg, 12, 23–32,
2008.
Abidin, H. Z., Andreas, H., Gamal, M., Gumilar, I., Napitupulu, M., Fukuda,
Y., Deguchi, T., Maruyama, Y., and Riawan, E.: Land Subsidence
Characteristics of the Jakarta Basin (Indonesia) and its Relation with
Groundwater Extraxtion and Sea Level Rise, in: Groundwater Response to
Changing Climate, IAH Selected Papers on Hydrogeology No. 16, edited by:
Taniguchi, M. and Holman, I. P., CRC Press, London, Chapter 10, 113–130,
2010.
Abidin, H. Z., Andreas, H., Gumilar, I., Fukuda, Y., Pohan, Y. E., and
Deguchi, T.: Land subsidence of Jakarta (Indonesia) and its relation with
urban development, Nat. Hazards, 59, 1753–1771, 2011.
Abidin, H. Z., Andreas, H., Gumilar, I., Sidiq, T. P., and Fukuda, Y.: On the
Roles of Geospatial Information for Risk Assessment of Land Subsidence in
Urban Areas of Indonesia, in: Intelligent Systems for Crisis Management,
Lecture Notes in Geoinformation and Cartography, edited by: Zlatanova, S.,
Peters, R., Dilo, A., and Scholten, H., Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg,
277–288, 2013.
Abidin, H. Z., Andreas, H., Gumilar, I., and Yuwono, B. D.: Performance of
the Geometric-Historic Method for Estimating Land Subsidence in Urban Areas
of Indonesia, Proceedings of the XXV FIG Congress, TS 10B Session – Earth
Geodynamics and Monitoring 2, 16–21 June 2014, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 2014.
Abidin, H. Z., Andreas, H., Gumilar, I., Yuwono, B. D., Murdohardono, D., and
Supriyadi, S.: On integration of geodetic observation results for assessment
of land subsidence hazard risk in urban areas of Indonesia, in: International
Association of Geodesy Symposia Series, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 143,
1–8, 2015a.Abidin, H. Z., Andreas, H., Gumilar, I., and Wibowo, I. R. R.: On correlation
between urban development, land subsidence and flooding phenomena in Jakarta,
Proc. IAHS, 370, 15–20, 10.5194/piahs-370-15-2015, 2015.
Abidin, H. Z., Andreas, H., Gumilar, I., Sidiq, T. P., and Gamal, M.:
Environmental Impacts of Land Subsidence in Urban Areas of Indonesia, in:
Proceedings of the FIG Working Week 2015, TS 3 – Positioning and
Measurement, Sofia, Bulgaria, Paper no. 7568, 17–21 May 2015, 2015c.
Chaussard, E., Amelung, F., Abidin, H. Z., and Hong, S.-H.: Sinking cities in
Indonesia: ALOS PALSAR detects rapid subsidence due to groundwater and gas
extraction, Remote Sens. Environ., 128, 150–161, 2013.
Firman, T.: From Global City to City of Crisis: Jakarta Metropolitan Region
Under Economic Turmoil, Habitat Int., 23, 447–466, 1999.
Firman, T.: New town development in Jakarta Metropolitan Region: a
perspective of spatial segregation, Habitat Int., 28, 349–368, 2004.
Firman, T. and Dharmapatni, I. A. I.: The challenges to suistanaible
development in Jakarta metropolitan region, Habitat Int., 18, 79–94, 1994.
Harsolumakso, A. H.: Struktur Geologi dan Daerah Genangan, Buletin Geologi,
33, 29–45, 2001.Hudalah, D. and Firman, T.: Beyond property: Industrial estates and
post-suburban transformation in Jakarta Metropolitan Region, Cities, 29,
40–48, 2012.
Hudalah, D., Viantari, D., Firman, T., and Woltjer, J.: Industrial land
development and manufacturing deconcentration in Greater Jakarta, Urban
Geogr., 34, 950–971, 2013.
Hutasoit, L. M.: Kemungkinan Hubungan antara Kompaksi Alamiah Dengan Daerah
Genangan Air di DKI Jakarta, Buletin Geologi, 33, 21–28, 2001.Koudogbo, F. N., Duro, J., Arnaud, A., Bally, P., Abidin, H. Z., and Andreas,
H.: Combined X- and L-band PSI analyses for assessment of land subsidence in
Jakarta, Proc. SPIE, Remote Sensing for Agriculture, Ecosystems, and
Hydrology XIV, 8531, 853107, 10.1117/12.974821, 2012.
Murdohardono, D. and Sudarsono, U.: Land subsidence monitoring system in
Jakarta, Proceedings of Symposium on Japan-Indonesia IDNDR Project:
Volcanology, Tectonics, Flood and Sediment Hazards, 21–23 September 1998,
Bandung, Indonesia, 243–256, 1998.
Ng, A. H.-M., Ge, L., Li, X., Abidin, H. Z., Andreas, H., and Zhang, K.:
Mapping land subsidence in Jakarta, Indonesia using persistent scatterer
interferometry (PSI) technique with ALOS PALSAR, Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs.,
18, 232–242, 2012.
Purnomo, H., Murdohardono, D., and Pindratno, H.: Land Subsidence Study in
Jakarta, Proceedings of Indonesian Association of Geologists, 30 November–1
December 1999, Jakarta, Volume IV: Development in Engineering, Environment,
and Numerical Geology, 53–72, 1999.
Rajiyowiryono, H.: Groundwater and Landsubsidence Monitoring along the North
Coastal Plain of Java Island, CCOP Newsletter, 24, 19 pp., 1999.
Rimbaman and Suparan, P.: Geomorphology, in: Coastplan Jakarta Bay Project,
Coastal Environmental Geology of the Jakarta Reclamation Project and Adjacent
Areas, Jakarta, Bangkok, CCOP COASTPLAN Case Study Report No. 2, 21–25,
1999.
Rismianto, D. and Mak, W.: Environmental aspects of groundwater extraction in
DKI Jakarta: Changing views, Proceedings of the 22nd Annual Convention of the
Indonesian Association of Geologists, 6–9 December 1993, Bandung, Indonesia,
327–345, 1993.
Texier, P.: Floods in Jakarta: when the extreme reveals daily structural
constraints and mismanagement, Disaster Prevention and Management, 17,
358–372, 2008.Viets, V. F.: Environmental and Economic Effects of Subsidence, Publication
of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, LBNL Paper LBL-8615, 251 pp.,
available at: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/1sb4c8vh, last access:
20 October 2015, 2010.
Ward, P. J., Marfai, M. A., Yulianto, F., Hizbaron, D. R., and Aerts,
J. C. J. H.: Coastal inundation and damage exposure estimation: a case study
for Jakarta, Nat. Hazards, 56, 899–916, 2011.
Yong, R. N., Turcott, E., and Maathuis, H.: Groundwater extraction-induced
land subsidence prediction: Bangkok and Jakarta case studies, Proceedings of
the Fifth International Symposium on Land Subsidence, IAHS Publication no.
234, 89–97, 1995.